How Do You Know About The Geminids?!!

Hello everyone! It's been a couple weeks since I published a new article. Thankfully, I'm finished with all my finals and I don't think they went too badly. I'm excited to start writing again!

Anyone who knows me, knows that I've been really into Astronomy and space travel recently. I've been watching all the movies and documentaries about space that I can get my hands on. Virgin Galactic's unveiling of their new commercial spacecraft was easily the highlight of my week!

So, if you are as up to snuff on your astronomy as I am, you will know that this weekend our planet is going to enter the vicinity of an object called 3200 Phaethon.

This results in the Geminid Meteor Shower that we observe every December. But there is something that makes the Geminids very unique. Rather than beings bits of dust from a comet, the Geminid meteors that we observe burning up as they enter the atmosphere are actually fragments of 3200 Phaethon itself.

This is strange because 3200 Phaethon is thought to be an asteroid, and asteroids don't normally strew debris and dust into space in their wake. So where did the Geminid meteors come from? Astronomers have a handful of possible explanations. One theory is that a collision with another asteroid could have created the trail of dust and rock.

But the most recognized theory is that 3200 Phaethon used to be a comet. While the theory hasn't been proved yet, there is plenty of evidence to support it.The most convincing of which is 3200 Phaethon's path of orbit.

The orbital path is highly elliptical, which would typically be characteristic of a comet. And every 1.4 years, it takes 3200 Phaethon extremely close to the sun. Twice as close as Mercury, in fact. Just to give you an idea of the extreme temperature to which 3200 Phaethon would be subjected, the average temperature on Mercury is 800°F during the day.

So, while comets are defined by being made mostly of ice and dust, 3200 Phaethon could have easily been an enormous comet at one time that has since lost its ice and been reduced to a rocky skeleton by frequent close encounters with our sun.

Another interesting point is that the Geminid Meteors have only been visible for about 150 years. The first sightings were noted shortly before the US Civil War. At that time, they were weak and did not garner much attention. But the shower has been steadily intensifying each year since.

Recent showers have been recorded at 120-160 meteors per hour with optimal viewing conditions. This is attributed to the idea that Jupiter's gravity is pulling 3200 Phaethon's stream of debris closer to the earth each year. And the closer the debris gets, the more meteors we see.

Many astronomers predict that the recent ("recent" being a relative term here) appearance of the Geminids and their steadily increasing proximity to our planet means that in the next several decades, 3200 Phaethon will be an increasingly dynamic object to watch.

The Geminids get their name from the constellation, Gemini. They most often appear to come from a radiant in that constellation, but they can appear almost anywhere in the sky.

This year, the shower will reach it's peak at about local midnight on December 13th. This means that if you would like to watch the shower, the best time to do so will begin at midnight, no matter where you are, on Sunday evening.

Viewing conditions are going to be very nearly ideal. The optimal viewing window will be at least several hours wide, and the shower is going to occur two days before the new moon. Providing that the sky is clear that night, you should easily be able to catch a glimpse of the best meteor shower of 2009.

So if you are planning on staying up to watch, here are my tips to make the most of the evening:

• Find a good location ahead of time.
  
• You'll want to be somewhere where the night sky and your eyes won't be affected by bright city lights. 
  

• Bundle up.
• Depending on your location, it's probably going to be cold. So wear layers, warm socks and shoes, gloves, hats, and pack extra blankets.
  

• Know where to find the constellation Gemini.
• Gemini is one of the most easily recognized constellations so you should easily be able to locate it using a star map, or you can get a friend to show you.
  
• While you will be able to see the Geminids all over the sky, you will see the greatest number by knowing that they will appear to come from the vicinity of Gemini. 
  

• Pack furniture.
• Reclining lawn chairs are perfect. But a comfy blanket will work as well.
  

• Prep your eyes.
• You will want to give your eyes at least fifteen minutes to adjust to the dark before you will start to see all the meteors possible. 
• A good rule of thumb is when you can see each star in The Little Dipper, then your location is dark enough and your eyes have sufficiently adjusted.
  
• Also, if you plan on using a flashlight, find one with a red bulb. Or at the very least, cover the light with some red tissue paper and a rubber band. A red light will not affect your ability to see in the dark. 
  

• Bring snacks!
• Hot cocoa and cookies are never a bad idea!

Whether you choose to watch with friends, or in solitude, The Geminid Meteor Shower may be one of the most beautiful natural spectacles you will see in your lifetime!

Enjoy it! And if you get a chance, report your experience back to me in a comment on this article.

Also, Happy Hannukah tonight to all of my Jewish readers!

How Do You Know About Thanksgiving?!!

Happy Thanksgiving everyone!

I know it's a bit early, Thanksgiving isn't until next week. But my thinking was that if I post this article today, you'll have a whole week to absorb the contents. Then you'll be able to impress everyone at your Thanksgiving table with your extensive knowledge. Just don't forget to cite your source!

And with that, let the absorbing begin.

Most historians will agree that the first Thanksgiving celebration happened in 1621. After a long journey to the New World and an even longer first year trying to make a way of life, the pilgrims and the Wampanoag Native Americans sat down together and shared a Harvest Feast.

The Mayflower landed at Plymouth Rock the previous November and the pilgrims had faced an especially bitter winter they were scarcely prepared for. The following spring they were befriended by an English-speaking Indian named Tisquantum. He is more commonly known as Squanto.

Squanto had been to England several times. The first time he traveled there to serve as a translator. The second time an Englishman attempted to sell him into slavery. He escaped and lived in London for a time before he managed to make his way back to the New World. When he arrived he found that the majority of his tribe had been wiped out by an epidemic.

In their place he found the pilgrims that had spent the winter there. He soon realized that they didn't know how to survive in their new environment. It was miraculous that they had survived the first winter alone. Squanto set to work teaching the pilgrims how to cultivate and fertilize crops. He also showed them places to catch fish and eels.

It is widely agreed that without Squanto's assistance, the first settlements of the New World would have failed.

He also took part in the diplomatic missions led by some of the settlers to form an alliance with the Wampanoag tribe. Their efforts were successful and the tribe was willing to cooperate, mostly due to Squanto's example.

And so, to give thanks for the bountiful harvest and as a symbol of the cooperation between the English settlers and the Native Americans, a huge celebration was planned. The feast lasted for three days and nights and there were 53 pilgrims and approximately 90 Wampanoag in attendance.

We know much of what was prepared and served thanks to journal accounts of the celebration. It is written that the Wampanoag brought five deer to be roasted and served alongside ducks, geese, fish and lobster. Dried meat was also on the menu, as was dried fruit and berries.

Pumpkins and other types of squash were definitely served although the pilgrims lacked an oven to bake pies. Bread was not present on the table either since the supply of wheat flour brought over on the ship from Europe had long been used up. The same thing happened with the sugar supply, so sweets were not present on the table either.

Interestingly, the pilgrims had spoon and knives but not forks. They picked most of their food up with their fingers. They used cloth napkins to pick up hot food and to clean their hands. They also had salt on the table to sprinkle on their food.

It seems reasonable to assume that their food must have been bland by today's standards. But the pilgrims used many spices in their meal preparation. Cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, and pepper were popular seasonings and dried fruit was useful in adding flavor as well.

After the first feast at Plymouth, the tradition of a harvest feast continued in America. But it wasn't formally endorsed as a federal holiday until 1941 when President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a bill designating the fourth Thursday in November as Thanksgiving Day.

Even after hundreds of years, a Thanksgiving feast is still an annual tradition in nearly every American household. And in today's world when so many holidays often seem to be overshadowed by commercialization, Thanksgiving Day has managed to remain centered around family, friends, and appreciation for the blessings in our life.

When all of this is taken into account, there is no doubt that Thanksgiving will continue to hold a special place in the hearts of Americans for many years to come.

How Do You Know About Friday The 13th?!!

A Friday the 13th will occur at least once a year, but today is the third time the 13th has fallen on a Friday in 2009. Three is the maximum amount possible in any given year.

It's not uncommon for people to refuse to board an airplane, act on a stock tip, or even buy a house when the thirteenth falls on a Friday. Some people suffer from so much anxiety that they will stay in bed for the day, even if it means calling in sick.

 

The irrational and disabling fear of today's date is called Paraskevidekatriaphobia. Symptoms of the phobia include; shortness of breath, increased heart rate, hot or cold flashes, feeling like you've lost your sense of self, and numbness or tingling sensations.

While true cases of true Paraskevidekatriaphobia are rare. There is no denying that there are many people who consider today's date to be an unlucky one. One source places the number of people affected in some way between 17 and 21 million. And that's just here in the United States.

Determining the origins of the fear surrounding today's date is a difficult task. The earliest known documentation exists in a biography about Giancho Rossini written in 1869. But it is very likely that the folklore was passed down orally for centuries before that.

It is commonly accepted that two ancient associations of bad luck with the number 13 eventually became intertwined and led to the superstitions that exist today.

The first comes from a Norse myth in which 12 of the Gods were having a dinner party together at Valhalla. Loki, known ambiguously as both a helpful servant to the Gods and a trickster, had not been invited. Angered by this, Loki took on the shape of an old hag and showed up to the party. Once there, he managed to convince Holdur, the blind God of darkness, to shoot his brother Baldur, God of joy and gladness. Baldur died and the whole earth mourned in darkness.

In many places around the world it is still considered terrible luck to have 13 eat together and many believe that the first to rise from such a table will be the first to die.

The second association comes from the story of the Last Supper. Judas, the apostle who betrayed Jesus, was the 13th guest to the last supper. It is also well known among Christians that Christ was crucified on a Friday. And some biblical scholars believe that Abel was slain by Cane on a Friday the Thirteenth.

Another association comes from ancient Rome. They believed that witches often gathered in groups of twelve, leaving a thirteenth place open for the Devil.

Between both Christian and Pagan associations of the number 13 with misfortune, it is no wonder that society continues to regard today's date with a sense of foreboding. Some Numerologists have pointed out that its position after twelve may play a factor as well.

There are 12 months in a year, 12 signs in the zodiac, Jesus had 12 apostles. There were 12 tribes of Israel, 12 Gods of Olympus and 12 labors of Hercules. The number 12 seems to signify a sense of completion in the human psyche. Therefore, 13 seems to have a sense of restlessness attached to it.

Indeed, even in today's culture there still seems to be an ominous sense surrounding the number. Many airports will not have a 13th gate. And hospitals and hotels will routinely skip over a 13th room. In Europe, oftentimes the house between number 12 and number 14 will be 12 1/2. And sometimes the designers of high rise buildings will go as far as to skip 13 when numbering the floors.

Whether this is more often due to quirky tradition or true superstition is debatable. But there is no doubt that the number 13 steadfastly remains associated with mishaps, setbacks, and tragedy in our minds.

If this article has managed to spook you into putting some stock into the superstitions, there are many ways to counter your bad luck. A Google search for "bad luck remedy" will return about 384,000 results. They range from simple and concise to outrageously complex and lengthy.

So if you feel that today might hold some misfortune for you, take your pick of charm or ritual and get to work. The next Friday the 13th will occur in August of 2010. Good luck!

How Do You Know About The Gunpowder Plot?!!

Remember, remember the Fifth of November,
The Gunpowder Treason and Plot,
I know of no reason
Why the Gunpowder Treason
Should ever be forgot.

Guy Fawkes, Guy Fawkes, t'was his intent
To blow up the King and Parli'ment.
Three-score barrels of powder below
To prove old England's overthrow;

By God's providence he was catch'd
With a darkened lantern and burning match.
So holler boys, holler boys, let the bells ring.
Holler boys, holler boys, God save the King!

Immortalized in nursery rhymes, the story of the Gunpowder Plot is introduced to children in the United Kingdom at an early age.

But seeing as most of my readers did not grow up in the U.K. there is a fair chance that you have never heard of Guy Fawkes.

Throughout the second half of the 16th century, Queen Elizabeth I ruled over England. She was very much loved by her subjects. Her moves to establish a protestant church in England and her defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 had forever established her as the ruler of a golden age in the hearts of the English people.

In 1603, Queen Elizabeth died. And being The Virgin Queen, she had never married and therefore never produced her own heir to the throne. This meant that James I, son of Mary Queen of Scots, was next in line to succeed the throne.

English Catholics looked forward to James' succession in the hopes that he would be more tolerant of their religion since his own mother was Catholic. However, those hopes were in vain.

King James was not any more tolerant of Catholicism than Queen Elizabeth had been. So a number of young Catholics began to form a plan to both remove King James from the throne and rid England of Parliament members who supported Catholic repression.

A small group banded together under the leadership of Robert Catesby. Thirteen young men, coming mostly from affluent Catholic families, began to plot to restore Catholic rule to England. And they all agreed that violent action was warranted.

Indeed, it became obvious to them that the thing to do would be to blow up the Houses of Parliament during the State Opening of 1605. This would ensure that in one fell swoop, they would be able to assassinate King James I, The Prince of Wales, several disagreeable Parliament Members, and the Senior Bishops of The Church of England.

In doing so, they would make way for Princess Elizabeth II, King James' daughter, to take the throne at only nine years old and be taught to rule as a Catholic Monarch.

The young men managed to get their hands on 36 barrels of gunpowder and began to work out the best way to lay it under the House of Lords. They originally planned to mine their way underneath but that process proved to be too time consuming.

Parliament in those days was housed in a former royal palace that was surrounded by lodgings, shops, and taverns. Guy Fawkes knew that inside knowledge of the building would be necessary. So he used the pseudonym "John Johnson" (why that name never aroused suspicion is any man's guess) to secure a job as a servant.

One of the conspirators then heard, by chance, that a coal merchant had vacated a chamber directly beneath the House of Lords. He took action to secure a lease on that chamber immediately.

Fawkes then set to work slowly filling the room with gunpowder. It took him several months to do so since it had to be done in secret and when he wouldn't be missed from his servant's position. He had the job done by March of 1605. All 36 barrels had been stored in the underground chamber and concealed underneath piles of firewood and coal.

Then the conspirators had nothing to do but wait. The opening of Parliament had been postponed from September to November of 1605. Many of the thirteen Gunpowder Plot members left London for the summer with promises to reconvene in the fall to carry out their plan.

Over their summer holidays, some of the Plot members seem to have discovered a conscience of their own. They realized that many innocent people would be hurt or killed in the attack, including those who had been fighting for Catholic rights.

About a week before the assassination attempt was to take place, one of the group members even sent an anonymous letter to Lord Monteagle who had been a close friend. The letter warned him to stay away from Parliament on November 5th. Monteagle had the letter read aloud at an informal meeting, possibly to warn the conspirators that their plan was folly. News of the letter then made its way to the King.

The Plot members heard news that the letter had been publicized. Guy Fawkes inspected the chamber under the House of Lords and found that everything was exactly as he had left it. They decided to go ahead with their plans.

Fawkes offered to be the one to light the explosives and in the early hours of the 5th of November, he crept down to the chamber to make sure everything was in place for the coming evening. As he was leaving he was discovered by the King's men who had been ordered to search the cellars.  The men quickly discovered the gunpowder and arrested Fawkes.

He continued to tell them his name was John Johnson but made no attempt to conceal his intent. Under instruction from King James, Fawkes was taken to the Tower of London. While there he was tortured and interrogated. Throughout all of that he continued to insist that he had acted alone.

It didn't do much good though. Most of the remaining conspirators were caught when they attempted to lead a revolt. They were all tried and convicted of High Treason. Their sentence was to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.

Guy Fawkes had one last show of defiance in mind though. When he was to be hanged until almost dead, he jumped from the gallows and broke his neck. Therefore, skipping out on being drawn and quartered.

On the evening of November 5th, news had made it to the people that an assassination attempt on the King had been foiled. Though they knew little more than that, Londoners lit bonfires throughout the city in thanksgiving.

The celebrations became a tradition known as bonfire night and they grew more elaborate as the years went by. Soon, fireworks were included in the celebrations. And then children began to make effigies of Guy Fawkes which they simply referred to as, "The Guy." They would tote him through the streets and beg passersby for a, "Penny for The Guy." They would then use their pennies to buy fireworks.

In the evening, they would place The Guy on top of their bonfires and set the whole thing alight. Sometimes they would include an effigy of the Pope or a contemporary politician as well. The practices are still continued today in some areas, though they are viewed as quirky traditions rather than acts of hostility.

In recent times, Bonfire Night could be considered a cousin of Halloween, with begging for pennies taking the place of trick-or-treating. It is traditional to cook potatoes in the fire. And black treacle and toffee apples are quite popular as well. 

While the holiday has taken on an old-fashioned and almost childish reputation in modern times, some English continue to wonder, in a tongue-in-cheek sort of way, whether they are really celebrating the execution of Guy Fawkes or honoring his attempt to do away with the government.

How Do You Know About Snow?!!

Every morning this week I've woken up to a thin veil of snow covering everything outside my windows. I love when winter is just beginning and you can smell that unique crispness in the air that means that a good snowstorm is eminent.

It always puts me in a cozy, curl-up-by-the-fire sort of mood. And what does one do whilst curled up by the fireplace? In my opinion, there is nothing better than settling in with a good blog article! That's just me though.

Snow, as most everyone knows, forms when water droplets inside of a cloud freeze and then fall to earth. It is interesting however, exactly what the conditions must be for snow to form.

Snow must begin as a tiny nucleus and then form a crystal before it can take on the familiar flake shape. Inside the cloud, a few water molecules must become woven together and form a shape similar to a lattice. Then a water droplet must come into contact with this lattice and freeze around it. This forms a nucleus.

Dust, volcanic ash, or even sea salt particles can act as nuclei for an ice crystal as well. These nuclei allow condensation to take place. Without something to cause condensation to begin, water vapor in the atmosphere can remain unfrozen down to -40 degrees Fahrenheit.

Assuming that the temperature is 31 degrees Fahrenheit or lower, the water vapor begins to freeze into ice crystals and expand. As the crystals grow, parts of them break off and act as nuclei for other snowflakes to form. The crystals begin to fall through the air as they gain mass. As they fall through the air they collide with and stick to thousands of other crystals. This process forms the snowflakes that we all recognize.

The most beautiful snowflakes are those that are very wide, but very thin as well. Providing that the flake is large enough for the detail to be seen with the naked eye, this allows us to see one intricate layer of crystals all linked together.

The largest snowflakes on record were fifteen inches across and fell in Keogh, Montana in 1887.

Probably your whole life you have heard that every single snowflake is unique and there is not another like it. This is only partly true.  It is very possible that could spend your whole life searching for two identical snowflakes and never find them. But it is a statistical impossibility for each flake to have a unique shape and composition. Nature likes symmetry and patterns too much to be so original.

Another bit of trivia that is passed around is that the Innu eskimos have many words in their language for snow. Again this is partially true. The two most commonly spoken languages of these people are Innuit and Inuktitut. In these languages, they simplify the use of several adjectives into one word. For example, snow that drifts into a wave like pattern could be described with one word in Innuit. So, while they only have one word that translates literally to "snow," they do have many words that describe different conditions of snow.

One of my favorite natural phenomena is the peaceful quiet that seems to steal over everything after a fresh snowfall. This is occurs because air trapped between the crystals tends to trap sound waves and dampen vibrations. Once snow has been blown around by the wind or melted and packed down, it loses its ability to muffle sound.

Interestingly enough, if snow becomes hard enough, it can also enhance acoustics of a landscape. The snow in Antarctica is so hard and flat that researchers have reported the ability to hear human voices speaking at a normal volume from distances of up to a mile away.

Fresh snow can reflect more than 90% of ultraviolet light. This can cause a condition called Ultraviolet Keratitis. This is more commonly referred to as snow blindness. It is a painful condition that results from overexposure of the cornea to UV light. Essentially it's a sunburn inside your eyes. Snow blindness most commonly occurs in polar regions or at very high altitudes.

In addition to snow blindness, intense light reflections from the snow have caused a handful of documented cases of Poblokto. A syndrome also called Arctic Hysteria. Little is known about the cause of the syndrome other than it occurs when snow reflections are especially bright. The syndrome is seen almost exclusively in native societies that live close to the Arctic Circle. Symptoms can include hysteria, depression, echolalia (senseless repetition of words,) and insensitivity to cold. Sufferers are known to be so insensitive to the cold that they often strip off their clothing and run naked through the snow.

Everyone knows better than to eat yellow snow. Well, most everyone that is. But there are plenty of would be explorers who have never been warned against eating the pink snow. The color comes from a species of pigmented algae that grows in the ice. It is often called watermelon snow as it resembles the fruit and even gives off the same scent. Unfortunately, eating watermelon snow can cause illness due to the bacteria that feeds off the algae.

It is intriguing how much awe snow seems to inspire in us as humans. For most people, the fascination and curiosity caused by the different elements fades as we grow older. But snow never quite seems to lose its magical properties.

It is difficult not to feel a childlike sense of excitement as you watch the first snowfall. And a fresh white blanket of snow never ceases to steal our breath away with its beauty. 

How Do You Know About The Body Farm?!!

Alright, alright, before I begin this article and before I take any more flack from my readers, we need to address the elephant in the room. Yes, I took a two week hiatus from writing. I know, you all missed me and your Fridays just weren't quite the same without my articles to get you going in the morning...

But cheer up! I'm back in action and ready to bring you more useless information. Hopefully I can throw a little entertainment in there while I'm at it.  

Now, today's article may be unsuitable for those who are squeamish. Read on at your own risk! 

Behind the University of Tennessee Medical Center there is a 2.5 acre plot of woods sectioned off by a wooden fence. The outside of this fence is surrounded by a chain link fence. And just for good measure, the chain link fenced is crowned with a menacing coil of razor wire. 

As if the sickly, syrupy scent of something rotting isn't enough to keep curious passers-by from attempting entry, signs are posted along the outer perimeter of the fence that warn, "RESEARCH FACILITY. BIOHAZARD. NO TRESPASSING."  

This is The Body Farm.  

Dr. William Bass is the man responsible for establishing The Body Farm. He was appointed head of the University's anthropology department in 1971. He was also the official forensic anthropologist for the State of Tennessee. As such, he was often consulted by the police when cases involved decomposing human remains.  

However, at this point in history, little was known about human decay. And half of what was known was astonishingly inaccurate. As you can imagine, this was detrimental to Tennessee's finest when it came to solving cases that were any older than a few months.  

In one instance, Dr. Bass was called upon to estimate how long some human remains had been decomposing. Using the conventional methods for the time, he deduced that the individual had been dead for approximately one year. It couldn't have been any longer judging by the amount of  moist flesh that was still attached to the bones. Later on, other evidence proved that the body had been in it's coffin since the Civil War Era. The coffin was made of materials that contained lead which contaminated and effectively embalmed the body, making it nearly impervious to decomposition.   

This and other similar cases led Dr. Bass to ask the University to allow him to build a research facility where he and his Forensic Anthropology students could better understand the decomposition process of a human being.  

Nowadays, the farm receives around fifty bodies a year. All of them have requested that their body specifically be used for research on the farm. All of them are basically dumped somewhere in the woods and left for various periods of time.   

They are all left to decompose in different scenarios as well. They are left in cars, in shallow graves, submerged in water, inside cement vaults, in plastic bags, and some even in suitcases. Fairly often the bodies are subjected to chemical contact or fire to study the outcome.   

Students and their professors keep frequent and detailed records of their observations. Occasionally professional law enforcement members will take a field trip the the farm to take notes on a particular case study. They've even reported that several cub scout troops have requested to tour the farm. These requests were respectfully denied.  

Through the information gathered at The Body Farm and others like it, we have learned an immense amount about the process the human body goes through as it decomposes. Once death occurs, human decomposition begins to take place about four minutes later. Cells that are deprived of their usual supply of nourishment begin to die. Rigor Mortis takes place a few hours later because the chemicals that normally allow muscle fibers to slide freely have been metabolized by that point.   

Blood pools in the lowermost regions of the body causing the pallid color corpses are known for. Flies can detect the scent of a corpse from up to a mile away. They are attracted to the scent as a corpse is an ideal place for them to lay their eggs. Once the eggs hatch into maggots, the larvae will feed on the subcutaneous layer of fat.  

The brain tissue slowly begins to liquefy and seep out of the orifices in the head over the course of the next several days. The abdomen begins to turn green and bloat due to activity from the bacteria that naturally live their. The same thing can happen to the neck and face, especially the mouth area, making identification difficult at this stage.   

Blisters sometimes begin to form on the surface of the skin which eventually begins to peel off in large sheets. The skin on the hands will often slough off in one complete piece in a process known as "gloving."   

One of my personal favorite discoveries made by the iron-stomached students there is that they can soak the piece of skin that has sloughed off the hand in warm water to restore its flexibility. Then they can slip the "glove" right onto their own hand and take a perfectly good set of fingerprints.    

After most or all of the skin is gone and bone tissue is now exposed, the decomposition process begins to slow down. The process of skeletonization occurs when the last of the soft tissue is gone. But even at this stage, the corpses serve a purpose. The bones are removed from the farm and steam cleaned. Then they are added to the skeletal archives at the University so they may aid science even further.   

Dr. Bass does not teach any longer but he continues to occupy the position of Head of Forensics Anthropology. He has written a few books about his experiences at the University and continues to advocate the need for more decomposition research facilities. Unfortunately that is easier said than done due to the fact that no one wants to live next to a forest filled with rotting corpses and college-aged CSI fans.  

While it's obvious why the practice lacks general appeal, it is indisputable that the information gathered at The Body Farm has made forensic science what it is today. Countless cases that would have gone unsolved are now closed thanks to the work performed by the students and their professors.

How Do You Know About Lake Vostok?!!

On June 23, 1961, The Antarctic Treaty System was officially put into force. Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, The Soviet Union, The United Kingdom, and The United States were the twelve original signatories.

Essentially, the treaty ensures that Antarctica will always be a place that all nations have free access to the continent in order to conduct scientific study, as long as all research has peaceful purposes. The treaty forbids any sort of military action, such as weapons testing, but not the presence of military personnel.

It is thanks to this treaty that Vostok Research Station exists. It sits about 800 miles from the geographic South Pole on an Australian piece of territory. Research conducted at Vostok consists of aerometeorology, actinometry, geophysics, medicine, climatology, and magnetometry. Due to its position on the globe, it is the most isolated research station in existence.

 Vostok is likely most well known to the public for two things. One, being the site of the lowest reliably recorded temperature on Earth. (-128.6 F) And two, the climate research they conduct by drilling massive core samples of ice out of the sheet they are situated on.

By analyzing the hundreds and hundreds of layers in these core samples, they are able to study Earth's bygone climates.  To date they have drilled through approximately 414,000 layers. This puts them about two miles deep in the ice.

However, once they reached this depth, the layers stopped. The samples that they began to pull from the hole at this point were clear and pretty much devoid of information. Scientists were baffled as to why this might be. In search of answers, the Russians drilled on.

It was not long until the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) used airborne radar and satellite altimetry to try to discover what was lying over two miles beneath the ice and causing the anomalies in the core samples. When the men and women at SCAR realized what could be seen using those imagery techniques, they urged their Russian colleagues to halt all drilling immediately.

As improbable as it was, it appeared that deep under Vostok there was a liquid freshwater lake. The core samples that the Russians had recently pulled from the ice were from where the liquid freshwater came in contact with the ice above it and froze. The hole they had bored stopped within a mere 300 feet of the surface of the lake.

The satellite and radar images showed that the lake had a surface area approximately equivalent to that of Lake Ontario but was more than three times as deep as the great lake. The temperature is estimated to be about 26 degrees Fahrenheit but due to the enormous pressure of the ice slab above it, the water remains in liquid form. It is also suspected that geothermal heat provides some ambient warmth at that depth.

If it's difficult to picture, Columbia University has published this diagram of the lake.

The clear samples at the bottom of the Russian most recent cores provided some insight into the conditions of the lake. We know the lake is made up of freshwater because there is no salt present in the samples. We also know thanks to these samples that there is an incredible amount of oxygen in the water. Oxygen dissolves much more readily into water under enormous pressure.

If the Russians had continued drilling for much longer they may have encountered a geyser of unheard of proportions thanks to the astonishing amount of pressure the lake was under. Also, had they actually drilled into the surface of the lake, it would have been contaminated by the sixty tons of kerosene and freon they had filled their borehole with to prevent it from re-freezing and all hopes of studying this entirely untouched environment would have been lost.

Of course, as soon as the lake was discovered, a huge debate arose concerning the likelihood of finding life under such conditions. Because of the frigid temperature, the absence of sunlight, and the toxic levels of oxygen in the water, many scientists are certain that the lake is sterile. That would be a breakthrough discovery in its own right since there are presently no completely lifeless bodies of water known to mankind.

Others suggest that it is not unreasonable to expect life of some form to be discovered there. After all, extremophile organisms had been discovered in the most unlikely of places on our planet. There are some that live in the volcanic vents on the ocean floor, others that have been found living in the frozen arctic soil, and even some that have been found living in the rocks deep within the earth's crust. With this evidence, it is not ridiculous to assume there could be creatures suited to life under such conditions.

Another interesting point that scientists have made is that the conditions of Lake Vostok are remarkably similar to the ocean beneath the surface of Jupiter's ice moon, Europa. Analyzing such a similar environment on our own planet could have interesting extraterrestrial complications.

Presently, researchers are still contemplating the best method to investigate the lake without contaminating it. The introduction of any chemical or even a single microorganism from the surface could irreversibly pollute the ecosystem. There are also some scientist who advocate avoiding the lake altogether. Millions of years of evolutionary isolation could have resulted in bizarre organisms that may present a very real danger to humans

It has also been reported that the Russian researchers very much intend to reach the lake before anyone of their rivals. If something prompts them to restart their drilling, little can be done to stop them.

However, if science does get the opportunity to study Vostok Lake, the amounts of knowledge to be gained would be enormous. If the lake is found to be sterile, it would finally provide some context to the practical limits of life. But if life is indeed discovered, even if it's only in microbial form, it will not only have immense scientific implications beyond the scope of our planet, but it will show that world that life is made up of truly resilient stuff.

How Do You Know About Margarine Vs. Butter?!!

These days you expect to find butter and margarine side by side in your local dairy cooler. To not see one or the other would be out of the ordinary. But did you know that margarine companies had to fight to get, and keep, their products on those shelves?

It was 1866 and France was on the verge of a war with Prussia. Butter prices were soaring and Emperor Louis Napoleon III could only expect them to get worse if war was declared. A butter shortage was the last thing he needed on his plate.

Napoleon needed to find a butter substitute that was cheap to produce, plentiful, and easy to store on naval ships. So he offered a prize at the Paris World Exhibition to anyone who could come up with such a product. Some, including Napoleon himself, will attribute this to his concern for the poor classes and claim he was attempting to help them get the recommended allotment of fat into their diet. But let's face it, less money spent on butter means more to spend on guns.

The idea intrigued a man named Hippolyte Mege-Mouries. He began to research butter and milk and discovered that even starving cows give milk containing milk fat. He reasoned that since the fat wasn't coming from their food, it must be coming from the cows themselves. He then decided that it must be possible to do the same thing in a manufacturing process.

He invented a process to render oil from beef fat and combine that oil with milk to produce a spread that he called "Oleomargarine." He won Napoleon's prize and began to commercially manufacture margarine in 1873 near Paris. He had to close the business though when peace unexpectedly broke out and the predicted butter shortage never happened.

The U.S. Dairy Company saw potential in margarine though. They bought the rights the following year. Soon, meat packing houses all across the country began using fatty by-products left over from their processing to produce margarine.

Margarine sales grew quickly and those in the dairy industry began to see their profits slip. Manufacturers of cheap, low-grade butter were hit especially hard since when compared to margarine side by side, the two were roughly the same price but margarine was usually of better quality.

The dairy interests weren't going to take margarine's increase in popularity lying down. Lobbyists began to push for passage of laws requiring margarine to be specifically marked as something other than a dairy product. This really was of no concern to the margarine manufacturers since they figured that their consumers were well enough informed to already be aware that margarine wasn't technically a dairy product.

The dairy industry then began to run ad campaigns heavily featuring anti-margarine propaganda. They labeled margarine as "The slag of the butcher shop." They also hired a researcher by the name of Professor Piper to testify that in his research he had found margarine to contain "many kinds of living organisms, dead mould, bits of cellulose, shreds of hair, bristles, doubtful worms, corpuscles from a cockroach, small bits of claws, corpuscles from a sheep, tapeworm eggs, a dead hydravirus, and germs that cause cancer and insanity."

Even as the margarine companies tried to defend themselves against such blatant slander, dairy lobbyists in seven states forced legislation through that banned any article designed to take the place of butter.

Then The Supreme Court got involved. They ruled that the bans were unconstitutional since the unwholesomeness of margarine had not been demonstrated and the government could not prohibit one industry to protect another. They did have an alternative solution for the dairy industry though.

They suggested that since it was the color of the margarine that led to misconception about what the consumer was purchasing, states could legally ban dyed margarine but had to allow uncolored margarine to be sold freely.

By the turn of the century, thirty states had passed legislation banning the sale of colored margarine. (Little did consumers knows that butter and milk often contained additives to make their colors more appealing.) Uncolored margarine was a greyish color that proved very unappetizing and sales dropped. In five states, dairy interests shoved harder and passed laws that only allowed margarine that had been dyed pink to be sold. Sales plummeted in those states.

At this point, it was discovered that it was better to use vegetable oils rather than oils from animal fat to produce margarine. An added benefit was that by using vegetable oils with a yellow hue meant that margarine would be naturally colored yellow and could bypass the laws prohibiting artificial dyes. However it didn't take long for legislation to be pushed through banning the sale of all yellow margarines.

Margarine makers discovered that nothing in the law stated that consumers were prohibited from coloring their own margarine. The began to include a dye capsule with each purchase. The consumers would then take their margarine home from the grocery store, drop in the dye capsule, and knead the margarine inside a cellophane bag until the dye had been distributed. However inconvenient it may have been, consumers still wanted margarine as long as it didn't put them off their dinners, and sales started to rise.

Then the stock market crashed. The combination of financial hardships from The Great Depression and World War II butter rationing led consumers to switch to margarine. And then they began to wonder why they had to put up with coloring their own margarine.

Finally, after the war had ended, Congress narrowly passed legislation rescinding anti-margarine laws. Over the next five years every state but two followed suit.

They say that every dog has his day and margarine producers were long overdue for theirs by the time it showed up. In the 1960's and 1970's science told the public that animal fats were much more artery clogging that those that came from vegetables and margarine sales soared over those of butter.

We know now that the studies done in the 60's and 70's were wrong and vegetable oils that have been hydrogenated to make them semi-solid contain trans-fatty acids, popularly referred to as trans-fats. It's been proven now that trans-fats are one of the leading factors when it comes to elevated levels of cholesterol and the occurrence of heart disease.

Of course we know that butter, not to mention all dairy products, still contains saturated fats that also contribute to elevated cholesterol.

If you walk through your grocery store today you can see that manufacturers of both products are doing everything they can to persuade consumers to choose them. Nearly every margarine box states that the product no longer contains trans-fats and is obviously a heart healthy choice, while butter packaging attempts to appeal to those looking for a wholesome, more natural product.

After nearly a century and a half, the war between margarine and butter still isn't over. May the best spread win! 

How do you know about Pirates?!!

In honor of tomorrow being "International Talk Like A Pirate Day," this week's article is all about pirates! No, not the pirates from Somalia... I'm talking about real, swashbuckling, rum-drinking, treasure-hunting Caribbean pirates!

This post spans a period that is commonly known as the Golden Age of Piracy. Historians argue about the dates of this age but the general consensus is that it spans from about AD 1630 to the 1720's. Our modern perception of pirates is derived largely from this time period.

Prior to this time and due to religious warring between European nations, piracy mostly happened under the guise of national interest. Many seaman labored as privateers in the navy who, with letters of mark giving permission, targeted ships belonging to rival nations, raided whatever they had on board, and split the proceeds with with their governments.

Sometime around 1630, England and France signed a treaty with Spain that allowed them to establish colonies along the Spanish Main. These colonies were mostly on the island of Hispaniola (now known as Haiti and The Dominican Republic.)

Since the relationship between these countries had grown more peaceful, they no longer found themselves in need of such massive navies. Thus, thousands of seamen suddenly found themselves relieved of military duty without any knowledge of another trade to support themselves.

Many of these seamen had settled in the new Caribbean colonies. The islands they lived on had large populations of wild pigs and the settlers had become quite fond of barbecuing the pigs over open fires called buccans or boucan. Thus, earning themselves the nickname of Buccaneers.

When the buccaneers suddenly found themselves unemployed and incapable of supporting themselves, they began to turn to piracy to meet their needs. A large number of the buccaneers, who also referred to themselves as Brethren Of The Coast, moved to an island off the coast of Hispaniola that proved to be an effective pirate stronghold. This island had fertile land, fresh water, good places to weigh anchor, and defensible harbors. It's name was Tortuga.

By the year of 1650, pirates patrolled the Caribbean, the Eastern seaboard of America, and the West coast of Africa. They were many merchant ships in this range that were part of the Triangular Trade. Ships would begin their journeys by picking up slaves from Africa, then they would sail to the Caribbean to sell the slaves, accepting goods such as sugar, molasses, and manufactured articles for payment. They would then continue on to America to sell those goods to the colonists. Ships in the triangular trade made a profit at each stop, for the most part. There were many ships also sailing from South and Central America directly back to Spain filled with treasure from the conquests of the Spanish Conquistadors.

Generally, pirates managed to raid ships with very little violence. They favored small, fast moving vessels and would often wait in sheltered bays where they would be able to quickly sneak up on a passing merchant ship. They would then fire warning shots from their cannons. At this point, most merchant ships would surrender since they were not capable of outrunning the pirates. Besides, it would be much more costly to lose a ship to damage inflicted by cannon fire than to give up a portion of the goods on board.

Of course, there were times when a vessel would refuse to surrender and the pirates would choose to use whatever means possible to take the ship, it's crew, and it's cargo.

Pirates did not only raid ships for the purpose of stealing treasure. They often also took food, water, alcohol, clothing, weapons, and, on occasion, the entire ship itself. Basically anything that they needed to live at sea.

Pirates were not an unpopular group in the Caribbean though. In fact, many ports welcomed pirates knowing that they had plenty of money to spend. One port, in particular, became a favorite to the buccaneers.

It had bars, gambling houses, brothels, and just about any other place that a pirate could imagine to spend all the money he had managed to acquire during his most recent stint at sea. This was Port Royal, Jamaica.

In the month of July of 1661 alone, forty new licenses were granted for taverns to be opened in the city. Such was the demand for pirates to entertain themselves on shore.

One minister traveled to Port Royal thinking that his services might be needed in the quickly developing colony. This is what he said of his time there:

"The majority of its population consists of pirates, cutthroats, whores and some of the vilest persons in the whole of the world. Therefore, I felt my permanence there was of no use."

He departed on the same ship on which he had arrived.

Unfortunately, the pirate lifestyle couldn't last forever. By the 1700's the Europeans felt they had put up with enough piracy. They again began to bolster their navies by employing more men and adding more ships to their fleets so that they might accompany merchants on their voyages.

This move, combined with dwindling amounts of treasure being shipped from the New World back to Europe is what started the decline of piracy.

In the 1720's, Jamaica also began to take an anti-pirate stance on trade and was no longer welcoming pirates into the ports that they had once frequented. In addition, many men who had been privateers and pirates their whole lives had reached old age and began to retire from sailing. Piracy had nearly faded out of existence by the end of the decade.

In the late nineteenth century, stories drawing heavily on piracy and adventure gained popularity. Literature such as, Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson and plays such as J. M. Barry's Peter Pan, worked to associate glamour and romance with the buccaneers in the minds of the public. Movies later continued to advance this imagery and have forever fixed in our culture a fascination with this era.

Even though there has been a history of piracy throughout the time that man has been known to travel the oceans, the pirates of the Caribbean were literally the rulers of the sea during the Golden Age. No pirates before or since have ever held such notoriety. Even hundreds of years after they lived, we still find ourselves, even from a young age, knowing infamous pirates by name and enraptured by stories of their lives. 

This week's post is also subject to a personal note.

Grandpa Lloyd and Grandma Terry are two of my very favorite people in this world. I love them very much. And I have no doubts whatsoever that they would have made two of the most fearsome and terrible pirates who ever sailed the Spanish Main.

How Do You Know About The Petticoat Wars?!!

I want to take just a moment today to commemorate the anniversary of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Regardless of where you stand when it comes to politics, it is important that we do not forget what it means to be a patriot. 

It is also important that we do not forget the debt of gratitude that our nation owes to the heroes who laid their own lives on the line on this day eight years ago in order to save the lives of others. So if you see a soldier, a member of the police force, a firefighter, or an EMT today, take time out of your routine to thank them for the service they provide to our communities.

That being said, here's this week's article!

It seems that lately there have been several scandals in Washington D.C. that have had people all over the country up in arms. Scandals of a sexual nature seem to be more and more prevalent.  From the Lewinsky affair while President Clinton was in office, to Elliot Spitzer's latest embarrassment in being exposed as part of a prostitution ring, many consider this behavior in Washington to be a sign of the times and unparalleled throughout the history of our country.

However, in the early 1800's there was a scandal in Washington to rival those making headlines today. This one did measurable damage. Enough, in fact, that an entire Cabinet was overturned.

The newspapers called it "The Petticoat Wars." Never heard of it? Well, that's what I'm here for.

Margaret O'Neal, or Peggy as she preferred to be called, was the daughter of a Washington D.C. tavern-keeper. The tavern also served as a boarding house and was known as The Franklin House.

Peggy worked in the Franklin House as a barmaid. She was well-known and popular with the regular patrons as she was very beautiful. Her reputation for not having the strictest of morals may have had something to do with her popularity as well.

One regular patron of the Franklin House was a wealthy young Senator by the name of John Eaton. While it was hardly spoken of in polite company, it was not exactly a secret that Peggy and Senator Eaton had been settling more than his bar tab for quite some time.

Then Eaton's wife passed away. This left Eaton widowed at the young age of 28. He and Peggy married not long after on January 21, 1829. This was scandal enough in it's own right considering that social codes dictated that a much longer mourning period should be observed before remarrying. 

However, it was not long after they were married that President Andrew Jackson appointed Eaton to the position of Secretary of War. This catapulted the former barmaid to the status of Cabinet wife, the pinnacle of Washington society.

The other Cabinet wives resented the new Mrs. Eaton's sudden elevation in social status. Especially Second Lady Floride Calhoun, wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun.

Mrs. Calhoun, with the support of her husband, began to instigate an "Anti-Peggy Coalition" with the intent of freezing her out of their  circle. They refused to include Mrs. Eaton in any of their social functions at all.

This infuriated President Jackson, who may have been more sympathetic to the Eaton's situation due to the fact that his own wife had recently passed away and she too, had been the subject of innuendo.

Jackson called a special meeting of the Cabinet and their wives to defend his appointment of Eaton and call for an immediate stop to the malicious behavior towards Eaton's wife. And when the Cabinet wives continued to ostracize Peggy, Jackson chose to put a stop to it by purging the entire Cabinet, replacing everyone except for Postmaster General William Barry.

Due to his wife's intransigence, Vice President Calhoun's hope to ride Jackson's coattails into the Presidency had been put to an end. Jackson instead elevated Secretary of State Martin Van Buren as his favorite and chose him as a vice-presidential running mate in his re-election campaign.

Some speculate that Jackson chose to favor Van Buren because he had  managed to remain friendly with the Eatons throughout the Petticoat wars due to the fact that he was unmarried himself.

Van Buren replaced Calhoun as Vice President during Jackson's second term and then succeeded Jackson to the Presidency in 1837.

Calhoun and his wife returned to South Carolina where he won a seat in the U.S. Senate. He advocated states' rights, slavery, and economic issues affecting the South. Some historians say that had Calhoun become president instead of Van Buren, a northerner, he may have been able to ease some of the North-South tensions that lead to the outbreak of The Civil War in 1860.

Later in life, John Eaton became Minister to Spain and he and Peggy became the toast of Madrid. After Eaton passed away, leaving Peggy widowed in her sixties, she married a twenty-something Italian dance instructor, only to watch him run off with her granddaughter and most of her money.

So there you you have it. A short article for a short week.

Also, I would like to add a personal note to this week's post:

I love Tom "Dego" Dowers because he is so super awesome. He is genuinely a good person. And he's a good friend.

And that's all I have to say about that.

How Do You Know About Penicillin?!!

"A scientific experiment, briefly exposed to the air, became infected with a fungus whose spores had blown in through an open door... And left untended on a laboratory bench through the summer vacation, the fungus managed to destroy bacteria being grown as part of the experiment. The improbable results could not have been duplicated."

This account of the discovery of penicillin is adapted from Gilbert Shapiro's 1986 book, A Skeleton In The Darkroom.

Dr. Alexander Fleming was born August 6th, 1881 at Lochfield, in East Ayrshire, Scotland. When he was twenty years old he inherited some money from an uncle who had recently passed away. He had an older brother who was a physician and had suggested that Fleming follow the same career path. So he made the decision to enroll at St. Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London.

While there, Fleming had the option of becoming a surgeon. It was due to a suggestion from a fellow member of the rifle club, however, that Fleming instead joined the research department. During his time there, he became an assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almoth Wright. Wright is regarded in these days as a pioneer in vaccine therapy and immunology.

Fleming served throughout World War I as a captain in the Army Medical Corps. He worked in the battlefield hospitals of the Western Front in France. During this time, he saw many soldiers die as a result of septicemia, also referred to as blood poisoning, from infected wounds.

There is no doubt that Fleming's experiences during the war led to his personal desire to discover anti-bacterial agents.

Fleming's main focus at this point in his career became staphylococci, the germs that cause boils, carbuncles, and other surface infections. He was considered an expert when it came to staph bacteria and was known to be a brilliant researcher. He was also known to "play" with microbes as much as he conducted medical experiments with them

One of his favorite pastimes was to make what he called "germ paintings." To do so, he would draw a simple picture, such as a landscape, a ballerina, or a flag, on the surface of a four-inch glass petri dish. He would then fill each area of the drawing with a culture medium and seed it with the right strain of bacteria.

A day later, the maturing colonies would be visible, each with it's own distinct color, together forming the image of the sketch Fleming had made on the bottom of the dish.

Fleming also discovered that once the cultures had matured, he could preserve the "paintings" by spraying them with a chemical which killed the bacteria, but prevented the culture from deteriorating.

He was rather proud of his germ paintings and at any given time he often displayed several around his laboratory. He also made sure to have several paintings ready on special occasions and for royal visitors. Dr. Fleming's work was once featured at the opening of a new building and he included several of his germ paintings in the exhibition. There, Fleming had the opportunity to show them to Queen Mary.

She seemed puzzled by his enthusiasm for the paintings and as she was leaving, Fleming overheard her say, "Yes... But what good is it?"

Little did Her Majesty know, that the answer to her question was soon to be applied.

In 1928, Fleming was going to spend part of the summer away from London and his laboratory. He planned on lending the use of his lab to a colleague named Dr. Stuart Craddock while he was out of town. Before he left for his vacation though, he started growing a species of staphylococci called S. Aureus on some culture plates.

Fleming had read a report about color changes in this variation of staph which normally produces golden yellow colonies. The paper suggested that if you cut the incubation short and left the culture at room temperature for several days, interesting color changes took place.

Fleming wanted to see these color changes for himself. If nothing else came of it, at least he might be able to add a few more colors to his painting palette.

In September, Fleming returned to London and set to work preparing his lab for new research. There had been a heat spell in the few weeks before he returned. This was counter active to the color change experiment he was conducting as the changes were supposed to take place only at cool temperatures.

Fleming took all of the cultures and set them into a tub of lysol to kill the bacteria so the experiment could be started over. It was then that a colleague dropped in unannounced to see how the summer research was going. Fleming told his colleague that the heat spell had ruined his latest experiment and reached for one of the cultures at random to show him.

The dish that he happened to pick up was on the top of the pile of cultures and hadn't yet been submersed in the lysol. A fungus had contaminated the dish while Fleming had been away. This was not unusual, as spores floating around in the air often landed on plates while they were uncovered and started to grow.

Fleming noticed the large mold spot on the dish and started to reach for another in the pile to show to his friend, probably thinking that he could at least show him a better example of why the color change experiment had gone wrong.

But something caught Fleming's eye. "That's strange," he muttered

Half the dish was covered with yellow colonies of staph, like all the other dishes. But near the edge of the moldy spot on the dish, the staph cells had become translucent and some of them even looked like they were starting to dissolve away. Even stranger than that, inside a circle about an inch in diameter in the center of the mold spot, there no staph cells visible at all.

There could only be one explanation for why this was happening: something near the mold that had landed on the dish was killing off the staph bacteria.

It was an incredibly lucky accident that brought that particular mold spore to land on one of Fleming's experiments. Even more incredible that Fleming had grabbed that culture dish out of the pile considering that after inspection, it was the only one that the fungus had started to grow on.

Fleming immediately took action to preserve the mold. He scraped samples from the culture dish and placed them in test tubes with a liquid used to grow samples of fungi.

The mold that Fleming managed to preserve was a species of Penicllium. These types of molds usually grow on cheese, decaying fruit, and stale bread. The name comes from the same Latin root that gives us the word "pencil."

So, Fleming decided to name his discovery "Penicillin."

The truly astonishing part of this story is that that specific mold, happened to land in Fleming's culture plate. Because none of the other molds that Fleming or his colleague could come up with were able to kill bacteria. In fact, in the years since then, even though intensive searches have been conducted, not one species of fungus that produces Penicillin has been found anywhere in the Old World.

Not since that September day in 1928, has Fleming's particular species, now known as Penicillium Notatum, ever been found outside of laboratory-grown cultures.

In 1943, a strain called Penicillium Crysogenum was found in Illinois that is even more potent that Fleming's strain and is now used in the commercial manufacture of Penicillin.

Fleming was always modest, preferring to give credit to the scientists who furthered his research and were responsible for the formulation of the drug.

He would later say of his discovery,

"When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer...But I guess that was exactly what I did."

Many people consider the discover of penicillin the most important discovery of that millennium. In the year 2000, the number estimated to have been saved through the use of  the drug was as high as 200 million lives.

There is no doubt that his discovery changed the world of modern medicine by introducing useful antibiotics. To this day, Penicillin has saved and is still saving millions of people all over the world.